Suboptimal Intake of Fruits and Vegetables in Nine Selected Countries of the World Health Organization European Region.

The objective of this study was to characterize fruit and vegetable consumption in 9 selected countries of the World Health Organization (WHO) European Region. We analyzed data on fruit and vegetable intake and participant sociodemographic characteristics for 30,455 adults in 9 Eastern European and Central Asian countries via standardized STEPS survey methodology. Fruit and vegetable consumption across all countries was suboptimal, with a high percentage of populations not meeting the WHO-recommended intake of at least 5 servings (400 g) per day. Strengthened implementation of evidence-based policies to increase intake of fruit and vegetables is needed to reduce the burden of and disparities in NCDs.

A comparison of self-reported to cotinine-detected smoking status among adults in Georgia.

BACKGROUND: Self-reported measures of tobacco use may have limited validity, particularly among some populations. This study aims to validate self-reported smoking measures among Georgian adults participating in the 2016 STEPS survey using cotinine biomarker measurements, and to explore potential differences according to sociodemographic characteristics. Additionally, this paper examines how the estimated prevalence of smoking in the population varies according to measurement type. METHODS: Using the WHO standardized STEPS methodology, adults self-reported their smoking status. In a later stage of the survey, a subset of participants provided a urine sample, which was tested for cotinine. Using each participant's objective cotinine measurement and their self-reported smoking status, we calculated the sensitivity, specificity and positive predictive value of self-reported smoking. Next, we calculated the estimated prevalence of smokers according to the type of measurement. RESULTS: Results indicated high sensitivity (83.37%, 95% CI: 76.79-88.37%) among males and relatively low sensitivity (38.60% CI: 29.23-48.90%) among females. According to self-report, the prevalence of smokers was 26.44% (23.61-29.48%), while according to cotinine detection, the prevalence of smokers was 32.27% (29.16-35.55%). Among all subgroups, the self-reported prevalence of smoking was significantly lower than the cotinine-detected prevalence. CONCLUSIONS: To the best of our knowledge, this is the first time that the validity of the STEPS self-reported tobacco indicator has been tested. Self-reported measures of smoking status may lead to an under-estimation of smoking prevalence among Georgian adults, especially women. These findings suggest that integration of biochemical measures of smoking into tobacco use studies may be an important investment.

Отчет о ходе выполнения Программы и плана мероприятий по профилактике и контролю неинфекционных заболеваний в Кыргызской Республике, 2013–2020 гг.

В 2013 году Кыргызстан принял программу и план реализации программы по профилактике и контролюнеинфекционных заболеваний (НИЗ) на 2013–2020 гг. Страна обратилась к Региональному бюро ВОЗ за помощью впроведении среднесрочной оценки реализации программы с целью мониторинга прогресса в достижении целей,выявления проблем и возможностей для улучшения реализации программы и внедрения инноваций на второмэтапе. Проведение оценки программы и плана реализации программы по НИЗ руководствовалось всеобъемлющиммеханизмом, основанным на логической матрице цепочки результатов. Ключевые рекомендации, разработанныеи согласованные с Министерством здравоохранения, касались следующих направлений: активизации усилий вотношении контроля факторов риска НИЗ; наращивания потенциала в области мониторинга и оценки; повышенияэффективности распределения ресурсов; укрепления координации и подотчетности в целях наращиванияпотенциала

Progress report on the implementation of Kyrgyzstan’s programme and action plan on prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases, 2013–2020

Kyrgyzstan adopted a NCD programme and an action plan on noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) for 2013–2020 in 2013. The country requested support from the WHO Regional Office for Europe in conducting a mid-term review on its implementation to monitor progress towards the targets and to identify challenges and opportunities for improvement and innovation in the second part of the term. A comprehensive framework guided the review of the programme and action plan on NCDs based on the logical result-chain matrix. Key recommendations have been identified and discussed with the Ministry of Health in the following areas: accelerating efforts to control the NCD risk factors; increasing capacity in monitoring and evaluation; improving allocative efficiency; and strengthening coordination and accountability to ensure increased capacity.

Revising the WHO verbal autopsy instrument to facilitate routine cause-of-death monitoring.

OBJECTIVE: Verbal autopsy (VA) is a systematic approach for determining causes of death (CoD) in populations without routine medical certification. It has mainly been used in research contexts and involved relatively lengthy interviews. Our objective here is to describe the process used to shorten, simplify, and standardise the VA process to make it feasible for application on a larger scale such as in routine civil registration and vital statistics (CRVS) systems. METHODS: A literature review of existing VA instruments was undertaken. The World Health Organization (WHO) then facilitated an international consultation process to review experiences with existing VA instruments, including those from WHO, the Demographic Evaluation of Populations and their Health in Developing Countries (INDEPTH) Network, InterVA, and the Population Health Metrics Research Consortium (PHMRC). In an expert meeting, consideration was given to formulating a workable VA CoD list [with mapping to the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) CoD] and to the viability and utility of existing VA interview questions, with a view to undertaking systematic simplification. FINDINGS: A revised VA CoD list was compiled enabling mapping of all ICD-10 CoD onto 62 VA cause categories, chosen on the grounds of public health significance as well as potential for ascertainment from VA. A set of 221 indicators for inclusion in the revised VA instrument was developed on the basis of accumulated experience, with appropriate skip patterns for various population sub-groups. The duration of a VA interview was reduced by about 40% with this new approach. CONCLUSIONS: The revised VA instrument resulting from this consultation process is presented here as a means of making it available for widespread use and evaluation. It is envisaged that this will be used in conjunction with automated models for assigning CoD from VA data, rather than involving physicians.

Program for validation of aggregated hospital discharge data.

Hospitals are major providers of health services and analysis of hospital activity data is of great interest for both policy makers and public health researchers. The WHO Regional Office for Europe disseminates the hospital discharge data from European countries through the European Hospital Morbidity Database, available on http://data.euro.who.int/hmdb. In order to ensure that reliable high quality data on hospital activities can be published in a timely manner, a program for validation of hospital discharge data has been developed using the R language for statistical computing. This program has been in use since the October 2012 version of the European Hospital Morbidity Database and its use has contributed to improved quality and comparability of data on hospital activities across Europe.

Methods for measuring health inequalities (part I)

Source: Originally published with the title gb sMétodos de medición de las desigualdades de salud gc s, in Pan American Journal of Public Health 12(6), 2002

Indices para medir las desigualdades de salud de carácter social basados en la noción de entropía / Indices based on entropy for measuring social inequalities in health

As described in the scientific literature, indices used to measure social inequalities in health have positive features, but they also have shortcomings, depending on how they are applied. The objective of this article is to put forward and to demonstrate, in both theoretical and practical terms, the advantages of measurements of inequality based on the notion of entropy, which is well known in physics and in information theory. The article defines and presents the main properties of indices based on the notions of entropy and redundancy. The application of the indices is illustrated with two fictitious data sets and also with real data derived from basic health indicators for the Americas, from the Pan American Health Organization. Indices based on the notion of entropy have properties that include: a) not varying with scale changes, b) being symmetrical, c) incorporating a socioeconomic dimension, and d) being easy to interpret thanks to the condition of equivalence between entropy and a system with two categories.

Los índices descritos en la literatura para medir las desigualdades de salud de carácter social tienen facetas positivas pero también algunas insuficiencias, según las circunstancias de su aplicación. El objetivo de este artículo es proponer y demostrar, en los planos teórico y práctico, las ventajas de las mediciones de la desigualdad basadas en la noción de entropía, conocida ampliamente en la física y la teoría de la información. Se definen y exponen las principales propiedades de los índices basados en las nociones de entropía y redundancia. Se ilustra su aplicación en dos conjuntos de datos ficticios y en datos reales, derivados de los indicadores básicos de salud para las Américas, de la Organización Panamericana de la Salud. Los índices basados en la noción de entropía poseen, entre otras, las siguientes propiedades: a) no varían con los cambios de escala; b) son simétricos; c) incorporan la dimensión social, y d) son fáciles de interpretar gracias a la condición de equivalencia entre la entropía y un sistema con dos clases.

Los sistemas de información geográfica como herramienta para monitorear las desigualdades de salud / Geographic information systems as a tool for monitoring health inequalities

OBJECTIVE: To show how geographic information systems (GISs) can be used as technological tools to support health policy and public health actions. METHODS: We assessed the relationship between infant mortality and a number of socio-economic and geographic determinants. In explaining how GISs are applied, we stressed their ability to integrate data, which makes it possible to perform epidemiologic evaluations in a simpler, faster, automated way that simultaneously analyzes multiple variables with different levels of aggregation. In this study, GISs were applied in analyzing infant mortality data with three levels of aggregation in countries of the Americas from 1995 to 2000. RESULTS: Infant mortality in the Region of the Americas was estimated at an overall average of 24.4 deaths per 1,000 live births. However, the inequalities that were found indicate that the probability of an infant death is almost 20 times greater in the less developed countries of the Region than in more developed ones. Mapping infant mortality throughout the Region of the Americas allowed us to identify the countries that need to focus more attention on health policy and health programs, but not to determine what specific actions are of the highest priority. An analysis of smaller geopolitical units (states and municipalities) revealed important differences within countries. This shows that, as is true of data for the entire Region of the Americas, using national-level average figures for indicators can obscure the differences that exist within countries. When we examined the relationship between female illiteracy and malnutrition as determinants of infant mortality in Brazil and Ecuador, we identified social and epidemiologic strata where risk factors had different distribution patterns and that thus require health interventions that match their individual social and epidemiologic profiles. CONCLUSIONS: With this type of epidemiologic study using GISs at the local...

OBJETIVOS: Mostrar la aplicación de los sistemas de información geográfica (SIG) como instrumento tecnológico para apoyar las actividades en las áreas de política sanitaria y salud pública. MÉTODOS: Se evaluó la relación entre la mortalidad infantil y diversos factores determinantes de carácter socioeconómico y geográfico. Al ilustrar la aplicación, se hace hincapié en la capacidad integradora de los SIG, que permite simplificar, agilizar y automatizar la evaluación epidemiológica, tomando en cuenta el análisis múltiple simultáneo de variables determinantes con diferentes niveles de agregación. La aplicación de los SIG abarcó, en este estudio, el análisis de la mortalidad infantil en tres niveles de agregación en países de las Américas entre 1995 y 2000. RESULTADOS: La mortalidad infantil estimada para la Región tuvo un promedio de 24,4 defunciones por 1 000 nacidos vivos, pero las desigualdades observadas indican que la probabilidad de una muerte infantil es casi 20 veces mayor en los países de menos recursos que en los más prósperos. El mapeo de la mortalidad infantil a escala regional permitió identificar los países que requieren mayor atención en sus políticas y programas de salud, pero no distinguir dónde se requerían acciones más prioritarias. Un análisis de las unidades geopolíticas más pequeñas (estados y municipios) reveló importantes diferencias dentro de los países y permitió reproducir el patrón de desigualdad regional, que no se ve reflejado por el valor promedio de los indicadores a escala nacional. Al analizarse la relación entre el analfabetismo femenino y la desnutrición como factores determinantes de la mortalidad infantil en Brasil y Ecuador, se identificaron estratos sociales y epidemiológicos con distribuciones diferenciales de factores de riesgo que requieren intervenciones sanitarias adecuadas para sus respectivos perfiles socioepidemiológicos. CONCLUSIONES: Gracias a este tipo de análisis epidemiológico a escala local...

Métodos de medición de las desigualdades de salud / Methods for measuring inequalities in health

Measuring health inequalities is indispensable for progress in improving the health situation in the Region of the Americas, where the analysis of average values is no longer sufficient. Analyzing health inequalities is a fundamental tool for action that seeks greater equity in health. There are various measurement methods, with differing levels of complexity, and choosing one rather than another depends on the objective of the study. The purpose of this article is to familiarize health professionals and decision-making institutions with methodological aspects of the measurement and simple analysis of health inequalities, utilizing basic data that are regularly reported by geopolitical unit. The calculation method and the advantages and disadvantages of the following indicators are presented: the rate ratio and the rate difference, the effect index, the population attributable risk, the index of dissimilarity, the slope index of inequality and the relative index of inequality, the Gini coefficient, and the concentration index. The methods presented are applicable to measuring various types of inequalities and at different levels of analysis.

La medición de las desigualdades en el campo de la salud es una condición indispensable para avanzar en la mejoría de la situación de salud de la Región, donde el análisis de los valores medios ha dejado de ser suficiente. Este tipo de análisis es una herramienta fundamental para la acción en busca de una mayor equidad en salud. Existen diferentes métodos de medición y niveles de complejidad cuya elección depende del objetivo del estudio. Este artículo tiene como objetivo familiarizar a los profesionales de la salud y a las instancias decisorias con los aspectos metodológicos de la medición y el análisis simple de las desigualdades en el campo de la salud, utilizando datos básicos registrados con regularidad y agregados por unidades geopolíticas. Se presenta la forma de calcular los siguientes indicadores y se comentan sus ventajas y desventajas: la razón y la diferencia de tasas, el índice de efecto, el riesgo atribuible poblacional, el índice de disimilitud, el índice de desigualdad de la pendiente y el índice relativo de desigualdad, el coeficiente de Gini y el índice de concentración. Los métodos presentados son aplicables a la medición de las desigualdades de diferentes tipos y a distintos niveles de análisis.